Transverse waves vibrate at right angles to their movement but light moves in every physical direction, so it must vibrate outside our space. If light vibrated in a physical direction, it couldn’t move that way, so space wouldn’t be isotropic (the same in every direction). In simple terms, after space gives light three movement dimensions, there are no free directions for a transverse wave to vibrate into, so a physical vibration can’t explain light waves at all.

But if our space is a surface then light could move on it as waves do on a lake, except in three dimensions not two. If light is a transverse wave vibrating outside our space, just as complex number theory describes it, then we are 3D “Flatlanders”.

In Abbot’s story, Flatlanders were beings who lived their lives on a surface that had only two dimensions (Abbott, 1884), so they could see a circle but had to imagine a sphere. Now suppose a point entity moved on their land but set values in a circle at right angles to it (Figure 3.8a). Flatlanders could then explain it as a vibration in an imaginary  plane, just as we explain light in complex number theory. As the point moves, it would also have a frequency and a polarization plane in their space (Figure 3.8b), again as we have for light. They could then explain these moving points as imaginary vibrations, just as we do for electromagnetism (Figure 3.8c).

It follows that complex numbers could explain electromagnetism because light really does vibrate outside space, so:

“In quantum mechanics there really are complex numbers, and the wave function really is a complex-valued function of space-time.” (Lederman & Hill, 2004), p346.

Complex numbers describe light as rotating into a plane outside our space (Note 1), see Figure 3.9. Science calls this rotation imaginary because it doesn’t exist in our space, just as Flatlanders might call a rotation outside their space imaginary. But in their case, there really is a third dimension, so our case could be the same. If our space is a surface within a higher dimensional space, then light can vibrate into another plane as the equations say.

In the quantum model, our space is a surface inside a quantum network, so light can vibrate transversely. Quantum waves like light can’t leave that surface any more than waves on a sea can leave its surface, so if we are the same, we can’t leave our space. We are then three-dimensional Flatlanders, but what then vibrates when light does?

Note 1. Complex number theory describes a rotation into an imaginary plane. In normal multiplication, multiplying a number by two doubles it, e.g. 5 x 2 = 10. Multiplying by 4 adds it four times, e.g. 5 x 4 = 20. In complex multiplication, i is a 90° rotation into an imaginary plane, so times 2i is a 180° rotation that turns a number into its negative, e.g. 5 x 2i = -5. Times 4i is a 360° rotation that has no effect, so 5 x 4i = 5.

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In current physics, light is the vibration of an electromagnetic field that exists throughout space. When this field vibrates slowly, it is radio waves, faster vibrations are visible light, and very fast vibrations are x-rays or gamma rays (Figure 3.5). Visible light is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that vibrates about a million-billion times a second, gamma rays are a billion times faster, while radio waves vibrate just a few times a second. All these waves are then the same vibration at different frequencies, so the term “light” will from now on refer to any electromagnetic wave.

In optics, light moving on an axis is a ray of light. A ray of light can still be polarized in many ways, but filters can produce a ray that is polarized only one way. Lasers can also produce a light pulse, that is one photon of one frequency polarized in one plane.

Such techniques can produce polarized light rays that are out-of-phase, so the crests of one ray oppose the troughs of another. Each ray is then separately visible, but they combine to give darkness, as the out-of-phase rays cancel each other, just as out-of-phase water waves do. This light + light = darkness result confirms that light is a wave, because particles can’t do this. Note that flashlight beams can’t do this because they aren’t polarized.

We also know that light is a transverse sine wave, which in mathematics maps to a moving circle (Figure 3.6). A pointer turning in a circle like a clock hand produces a sine wave, as shown in Figure 3.7. Water waves are also sine waves, caused by forces acting at right angles to the water surface.

When a water wave arrives at a point on a pond surface, it pushes the water molecules up until gravity pulls them back down, then the elasticity of the water pushes them back up, etc. The wave just moves water molecules up and down, so corks just bob up and down as a wave passes. What travels as a wave across a pond is then a transverse up-down vibration, not the water itself.

In theory, light should work the same way but when the electromagnetic field vibrates, nothing physical goes up or down and there is no physical direction for it to do so. Physics says light is an electromagnetic vibration, but there is no physical basis for that. Naming an imaginary cause doesn’t explain it, so the term electromagnetic field is just a placeholder for what we don’t know. It is now suggested that a surface in the quantum network transmits light as a wave, just as a two-dimensional pond surface does, but in three-dimensions.

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Quantum waves can’t be explained in physical terms. According to physics, light vibrates in a complex plane outside our space and travels in empty space that can’t vibrate at all. The current conclusion is then that light is a wave of nothing that vibrates nowhere. This section proposes that light is a wave of processing that spreads on a three-dimensional network surface, so it really is a transverse wave, just as the equations describe it. Quantum waves are passed on by a quantum network that is the “… primary world-stuff” (Wilczek, 2008, p74), whose points are then the “atoms of space” (Bojowald, 2008).

3.2.1. Light is a Wave

3.2.2. We are Flatlanders

3.2.3. The Medium of Light

3.2.4. The Speed of Space

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As Feynman famously said:

“… all the mystery of quantum mechanics is contained in the double-slit experiment.” (Satinover, 2001), p127.

Quantum theory explains the double-slit experiment as follows:

A photon is a quantum wave that spreads in space by the equations of quantum theory. This wave goes through both slits to interfere with itself as it exits, but if observed immediately collapses to be a particle at a point, as if it had always been so. If we put detectors in the slits, it collapses to one or the other with equal probability. If we put a screen behind the slits, it goes through both, interferes with itself, then collapses to a point on the screen based on the prior interference.

This explanation doesn’t say what the wave is that goes through both slits, nor why it collapses to a point when observed, hence Wheeler’s question: How come the quantum?

To understand how strange this is, suppose the first photon in a two-slit experiment hits the screen at a point to become the first dot of what will always turn into an interference pattern. Now suppose that in another experiment with a detector blocking the other slit, the first photon goes through the same slit to hit the screen at the same point, to be the first dot of what will never be an interference pattern. The difference between these outcomes should be in their physical events, but they are identical – a photon goes through the same slit to hit the same screen point.

The only difference is that the slit the photon didn’t go through is blocked, but how can blocking a path the photon didn’t take stop the interference pattern? Equally, how can leaving open a slit the photon could have gone through but didn’t cause the interference? It seems that in our world, a counter-factual, an event that didn’t physically happen, can change a physical outcome.

In a purely physical world, the double-slit result is impossible. And the unlikely tale of quantum waves that collapse when viewed makes no physical sense, yet it is the most fertile theory in the history of science. This leaves two key questions unresolved:

1. What are quantum waves? What exactly is proposed to spread through space as a wave? The current answer, that quantum waves don’t exist so it doesn’t matter, is unsatisfactory.

2. What is quantum collapse? Why do quantum waves restart at a point when viewed? The current answer, that quantum waves collapse “because they do”, is equally unsatisfactory.

Until it answers these questions, quantum theory is a recipe without a rationale, not a real theory. Theories describe real causes, not imaginary ones, so quantum theory isn’t actually a theory at all, but at best a Pinocchio theory, a puppet of physics that wants to be what it isn’t. Yet it could be, if only there was some rationale to quantum waves.

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In the 1920’s, after centuries of dispute over whether light is a wave or particles, Bohr devised the compromise that holds today, that they are complementary views so both are true, and nothing better has been found since:

“…nobody has found anything else which is consistent yet, so when you refer to the Copenhagen interpretation of the mechanics what you really mean is quantum mechanics.” (Davies & Brown, 1999), p71.

In this don’t ask, don’t tell policy, a photon can be a wave when we don’t look, as long as it’s a particle when we do, so physics can apply particle or wave equations as convenient. In no pond do rippling waves behave like particles and on no table do billiard-balls behave like waves, but Bohr managed to sell the big lie [Note 1] that light is a wavicle. As Gell-Mann said in his 1976 Nobel Prize speech:

“Niels Bohr brainwashed a whole generation of physicists into believing that the problem (of the interpretation of quantum mechanics) had been solved fifty years ago.”

Figure 3.4 shows the options available. Physical realism, that only physical things exist, doesn’t let waves be particles, so there is the physical world but no quantum world (Figure 3.4a). But how then are physicists who use quantum waves to predict atomic events different from witchdoctors who use spirits to heal people, as both invoke what is imaginary?

To avoid this, Copenhagen dualism was that the quantum world did exist for physicist’s equations, but otherwise it didn’t, so in effect, both the physical world and the quantum world exist somehow (Figure 3.4b). But that a quantum world existed for the convenience of physics was an admission of failure, not a theory advance (Audretsch, 2004), p14.

This was the beginning of fake physics, where what is imaginary can cause real events if the equations work. Yet even as he publicly accepted quantum world, in private, Bohr denied that it existed at all. He wanted the best of both worlds, but like Descartes’ mind-body dualism earlier, Copenhagen dualism is a mystical marriage of convenience between incompatible domains, accepted by those who want it to be true.

Figure 3.4c shows the quantum realism alternative to physical realism and Copenhagen dualism, that physical events are a subset of quantum events. Now reality is quantum not physical, and it generates the physical world within it, so classical mechanics is a subset of quantum mechanics. What then are the properties of this reality, or as Wheeler put it, how come the quantum?

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Note: A “big lie” is a statement so outrageous that people think it must be right or it wouldn’t be said.

The double-slit experiment is a simple test carried out over two hundred years ago that still baffles physics today. Young shone light through two slits to get an interference pattern on a screen (Figure 3.2). Only waves interfere like this, so light is a wave, but why then do its rays hit at a point? Conversely, if light is made of particles, why do they interfere like a wave?

To explain this puzzle, physicists used lasers to send one photon at a time through the slits. Each photon then gave a dot on the screen, as a particle would, but over time the dots formed the familiar interference pattern, whose most likely impact was behind the barrier between the slits! The effect was independent of time, so one photon shot through the slits each day still gave the same pattern. Since a photon can’t know where the last one hit, how can interference occur?

It seemed that each photon was going through both slits to interfere with itself! In an objective world, one could just observe whether a photon went through both slits, but our world doesn’t work like this. Detectors placed in the slits to see where the photon goes just fire half the time, as expected. A photon always goes by one slit or another, never through both, so interference shouldn’t be possible.

The puzzle is that when we look at the slits, there is a photon particle, but when we don’t look, they produce wave interference. Imagine if one skier set off, went around both sides of a tree, but still reached the finish line as one skier (Figure 3.3).

In summary, the problem is:

1. If a photon is a wave, how can it hit the detector screen at a point not a smear?

2. If a photon is a particle, how can going through one slit give an interference pattern?

And this wave-particle duality doesn’t just apply to light, as electrons, atoms, and even molecules exhibit Young’s two-slit interference (M. Arndt, O. Nairz, J. Voss-Andreae, C. Keller, & Zeilinger, 1999), so they also act like quantum waves.

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The question of whether light is a particle or a wave has a long history. In the seventeenth century, Huygens observed that light beams at right angles pass through each other like waves, while arrow-like particles would collide. He concluded that light is a wavefront spreading in all directions, with each point the origin of a new little wavelet. Behind the wavefront, wavelets interfere, as the trough of one cancels the crest of another. The result is a forward moving wavefront that acts like a ray of light (Figure 3.1a). Huygen’s Principle, that each point of the light wavefront is a new wavelet source, explained reflection, refraction, and diffraction, so light is a wave.

In contrast, Newton observed that light travels in straight lines, rather than bending round corners as sound does when we hear someone talking in the next room, so he concluded that light consisted of corpuscles that traveled in straight lines, as in the optics of the day. His particle model explained only reflection and refraction (Figure 3.1b), but he carried the day, so light was then seen as particles that move in straight lines.

So it remained, until two hundred years later Maxwell, using Faraday’s idea of a field, wrote down the equations of light as an electro-magnetic wave based on a mechanical model of rotating vortexes. The equations worked, so they were accepted, which seemed to settle the matter that light was a wave.

However, Maxwell’s equations assumed that light waves travel by means of an ether, so the speed of light should vary relative to that ether, but the Michelson-Morley experiment showed that it didn’t. Light couldn’t travel in a physical ether, so it wasn’t a wave. Then Einstein showed, from the photo-electric effect, that light comes in particle-like packets, called photons. The evidence suggested both that light was a wave and that it was particles!

In history, the science of light has swung from Huygens’ waves, to Newton’s corpuscles, to Maxwell’s waves, to Einstein’s photons, with no clear winner, so physics finally gave up. It decided that light is wave and a particle, even though no-one can explain how that is possible. Three centuries after Huygens and Newton, we still don’t know whether light is a wave or a particle, and the current wave-particle duality essentially enshrines our ignorance. Physical reality can explain light as a particle, or as a wave, but it can’t explain how it can be both.

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In science, the question of what light is reduces to what it does, but what it does isn’t physically possible. Even after centuries of study, physics still can’t explain why light:

1. Doesn’t fade. All physical waves fade over time, by the second law of thermodynamics, but light doesn’t. A photon that took a million years to hit a screen gives the same result as one just made.

2. Has a constant speed. The speed of a wave depends on the medium it travels through, but light travels at a constant speed in the nothing of space, for no physical reason.

3. Is a wave and a particle. Waves aren’t particles, nor are particles waves, but light travels like a wave then arrives like a particle.

4. Always finds the fastest path. A particle can’t know, in advance, the fastest path to any destination, but light always finds that path.

5. Chooses its path after it arrives. A particle can’t choose the path it takes to a destination after it arrives, but light can do just that.

6. Can reveal an object it didn’t physically touch. In a purely physical world, it is impossible to detect an object without touching it, but light can do exactly that.

7. Can vibrate outside space. Light vibrates, but does so in a dimension outside our space.

Most scientists assume that light is physical, but physical causes can’t explain it. For example, wave-particle duality lets light be both a wave and a particle, but nothing physical can do that. A water wave can’t arrive at a point like a particle, but light does. A particle can’t take many paths at once like a wave, but light does. Physical waves don’t act like particles, and particles don’t act like waves, so how can light be both? Surely science can decide if light is a particle or a wave?

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Long before science, light was considered primal. In Egypt, light from the Sun god Aten sustained all, and in the bible, God created light before the sun, moon, stars, or man. Light is all around us today but what it is remains a mystery. As Einstein wrote just before he died:

“All these fifty years of conscious brooding have brought me no nearer to the answer to the question ‘What are light quanta?’ Nowadays every Tom, Dick and Harry thinks he knows it, but he is mistaken.” (Walker, 2000), p89.

Even today, science still can’t answer the question what is light?

QR3.1.1 Light is a Mystery

QR3.1.2 Particle or Wave?

QR3.1.3 The Double-Slit Experiment

QR3.1.4 The Copenhagen Compromise

QR3.1.5 How Come The Quantum?

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Quantum Realism Part I. the observed Reality…

Chapter 3. The Light of Existence

Brian Whitworth, New Zealand

“There is a theory which states that if anyone discovers exactly what the Universe is for and why it is here, it will instantly disappear and be replaced by something even more bizarre and inexplicable. There is another theory which states that this has already happened.”

Douglas Adams, 1995.

In the beginning, there was light, but not as we know it today. In the last chapter, our universe began as one white-hot photon in one unit of space, but this first event instantly led to the chain-reaction that physics calls inflation. Inflation then created all the light that has ever existed in a million, billion, billion, billionth of a second, until the accompanying expansion of space diluted the light enough to stop it. The result was a small plasma ball of white-hot light and space that then expanded at light speed to form all the galaxies and stars we see today. In this view, light, and only light, was the first existence, so what is it? Download Whole Chapter

QR3.1.   What is Light?

QR3.2.   The Quantum Wave

QR3.3.   The Quantum Process

QR3.4.   Quantum Processing Spreads

QR3.5.   Quantum Processing Restarts

QR3.6.   Light Takes Every Path

QR3.7.   Quantum Spin

QR3.8.   Physics Revisited

QR3.9.   Redefining Reality

Summary Table

Discussion Questions

References

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