In current physics, charge is what causes electrical effects, and electrical effects are those caused by charge, a circular definition that doesn’t tell us much. Hence, in the standard model, charge is considered to be fundamental, just as mass is, so no attempt is made to explain it.
In contrast, if everything is based on processing, charge must be the same. Recall that in Figure 4.3, two extreme photons meet at a point, and mass is the net processing that repeats. If so, there will be negative processing that never runs, as shown by the dotted lines. The quantum network must keep its processing books in order, so let the charge of an electron be its constant processing deficit. If the net processing that repeats is mass, and the processing left over is charge, then charge is a necessary byproduct of mass.
This definition of charge fits its properties, as a processing remainder can:
1. Be positive or negative, as charge is.
2. Cancel its opposite, as opposite charges do.
3. Have a constant value, as an electron’s charge is.
If mass is the net processing that runs before the network overloads, and charge is the remainder that doesn’t get to run, an electron’s mass and charge come from the operation that creates it. This suggests that in general, mass and charge are related in a way the standard model doesn’t predict.