Magnetism differs from charge because splitting a magnet gives two more magnets, each with its own north and south pole (Figure 5.13), but dividing a positive-negative charge produces positive and negative parts. Also, joining two small magnets gives a big one, so big magnets come from small ones, and the smallest possible magnet is the electron.

Electrons explain why metals can be magnets but not plastics. Copper conducts electricity because its electrons move freely, and it becomes a magnet for the same reason. The electrons in a metal usually point randomly but if they all point the same way, it becomes a magnet (Figure 5.14). In contrast, the electrons in plastics can’t move freely, so plastic can’t conduct electricity or become magnetic. Electrons then connect electricity and magnetism. 

An electron is essentially a tiny magnet whose north pole is at right angles to its spin, and whose south pole is the opposite, so could spin cause magnetism? Quantum theory requires all matter to spin, so it is a basic property of matter, like mass and charge. Current physics calls spin imaginary because an electron is a point particle, so it can’t spin, but this model lets electrons spin outside space.

If spin causes magnetism, north and south poles are directions not parts, just as a plate has a top and bottom. Magnets then split into two magnets because separated spins still have an up and down. Charges can divide because a plate of two colors can divide into them, but magnetic poles can’t divide because every part of a plate still has a top and bottom. It follows that there can never be a north pole without a south pole.

Particle models postulate particles with one magnetic pole called magnetic monopoles. Nothing in Maxwell’s equations of magnetism prohibits them, so despite no evidence, they are argued to exist (Rajantie, 2016). But if spin causes magnetism, monopoles don’t exist, so this is yet another fruitless standard model search, like that for gravitons.

What then does spin do? By the Pauli exclusion principle, opposite-spin electrons can occupy the same point but same-spin electrons can’t. This applies because electrons can spin into different regions of quantum space (4.7.1), so if one spins up and the other down, they don’t overlap. In contrast, same-spin electrons compete for the same space. Spin then lets opposite spin electrons occupy the same point but not same spin electrons.

Again, if matter processing spreads, so will its spin. It doesn’t affect gravity much but between magnets, spin interacts. Between opposite magnets, opposite spins co-exist so space deepens, but between same magnets, same-spins compete by the Pauli principle, so space is shallower.

Opposite magnets deepen the space between them, so less competition lets the network run faster. The magnets restart more often where the field is faster, so they move together, i.e. attract. But between same magnets, same-spin processes compete for the same space so the network runs slower. The magnets restart more often away from each other, so they move apart, i.e. repel. Magnets then attract or repel by biasing the speed of the quantum field between them, just as charges do but for a different reason.

Gravity, charge, and magnetism then move matter in the same way, by biasing the quantum field around it. Gravity biases the field strength to attract matter only. Charges and magnets bias the field speed between them to attract or repel. In all cases, matter moves when changes in the field around it make it tremble more often one way.

Charge and magnetism both involve electrons, so why don’t static charges affect magnets? If magnetism is a spin direction, and charge is a processing remainder, these properties won’t interact. Spin doesn’t change charge, and charge doesn’t change spin, so they don’t affect each other. 

Why then are electrical and magnetic fields always at right angles? Electrons as one-dimensional matter can only move as matter on one axis. When an electric field creates a current, electrons moving in the same direction must align their matter axes to do so, which also aligns their spins. An electron always moves on its matter axis and spins at right angles to that, so its magnetic and electrical fields are always at right angles.

Currents cause magnetism because aligning electrons to move in a direction also makes them spin the same way, which is magnetism. Electrons moving in one direction down a wire spin one way, and in the other direction spin the opposite way. Equally, when a magnet moves, it acts to align the electron’s axes so they move as a current.

Why then does magnetism fade faster than charge? Charge decreases as an inverse square because it spreads on a two-dimensional sphere surface but when spin deepens space, magnetism also spreads in a third dimension. The effect disappears between same poles, so magnetism fades on average more than an inverse square but less than an inverse cube.

In summary, gravity, charge, and magnetism move objects by biasing the quantum field, where gravity biases its strength and magnetism and charge bias its speed. Gravity, charge, and magnetism then all arise from the same quantum field.

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To us, mass and charge seem different but in processing terms they are sides of the same coin:

1. Mass is the net processing that runs, and

2. Charge is the net processing that doesn’t run.

Matter constantly overloads the network of space, then restarts at some point in its distribution. The processing that runs before the restart is mass, and the remainder is charge, which can be positive, negative, or neutral. The network passes on all processing, whether done or not, so the distribution of matter reflects both its mass and charge.

Gravity is based on the effect of mass. A big mass like the earth spreads a massive distribution that weakens with distance to make the quantum field stronger closer to earth. Local objects then move toward the earth because they restart more often where the field is stronger. The effect is slight but even a slight asymmetry causes movement over time. Gravity then moves objects by biasing the field around them, so do charged objects interact for a similar reason?

Recall that each point of space passes on its current processing before running any new processing received, so every quantum cycle has two phases:

1. Share: Pass on all current processing to its neighbors, which dilutes it, then, 

2. Execute: Run any processing received, and if it overloads, request a server restart, where:

a. If the request is ignored, just carry on.

b. If the request is accepted, restart the server processing in a physical event.

The share phase passes on all processing, not just that of mass but also the charge remainder. These remainders don’t affect the gravity of small objects much, but between opposite charges they cancel, so the quantum cycle completes faster, because the share phase has less processing to pass on. In contrast, between same-charge bodies the remainders add, so the cycle slows down because the share phase has more processing to pass on. Charged bodies then interact to make the quantum field between them run faster or slower.

Opposite charges speed up the field between them so they restart there more often because servers accept requests on a first-come first-served basis, so they move together, i.e. attract. Conversely, same charges restart less often in the slower field between them, so they move apart, i.e. repel. Charges then attract or repel by biasing the speed of the quantum field between them.

It follows that charges move other charges as gravity does, not by pushing or pulling but by changing the field around them so they naturally move. Matter constantly trembles microscopically, so making it quiver more often one way will move it macroscopically. The distribution of an object can then affect that of another at a distance, but while gravity changes the quantum field strength, charge changes its speed. 

Why then is charge stronger than gravity for similar objects? In competitions where speed counts, like running, a team that is 5% faster than others wins all the races, not just a few more. Likewise on the quantum network, a slight speed increase can have more than a slight effect, so charge is stronger than gravity because it biases speed not strength.  

Gravity and charge move matter by biasing the quantum field differently, namely:

• Strength. Matter tends restart where the field is stronger.
• Speed. Matter tends restart where the field is faster.

Both effects arise because matter processing spreads, so both reduce as an inverse square by Gauss’s law. The quantum field then explains gravity and charge but what about magnetism which works quite differently?

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Magnetism was once thought to be distinct from electricity, but then Maxwell’s equations were found to describe both, and experiments connected them.

A static charge isn’t magnetic, but if it moves, a magnetic field appears around it. In Figure 5.12, passing a current I through the wire produces a magnetic field B, so wrapping a wire around a nail and passing a current through it makes it a magnet, and the effect stops when the current does. Electricity can then cause magnetism and the reverse is also true, as spinning a magnet with a wire wrapped around it induces a current in the wire.

Electric cars are then possible because in physics, magnetism and electricity behave as one field:

“We will see that magnetism and electricity are not independent things – that they should always be taken as one complete electromagnetic field.” (Feynman et al., 1977).

Is magnetism then just charge in another guise? (Note 1) It would seem not because:

1. Static charges and magnets don’t interact.

2. The magnetic field is at right angles to the electric field.

3. Gauss’s law doesn’t apply to magnetism, which reduces more like an inverse cube.

4. Dividing a charged body gives positive and negative charges but dividing a magnet gives two more magnets, both with a north and south pole.

Magnetism acts differently from charge, so how one field causes both is unclear. Light is also described as electrical and magnetic waves vibrating at right angles that cause each other, in a self-sustaining loop, which is illogical.

Current physics can explain electricity and magnetism separately, but not how they combine. It is as if we understood horses and birds, then found a winged horse we couldn’t explain. There is no credible theory that explains why electro-magnetism has different effects, that occur in different directions, and weaken differently.  

The standard model explanation is that charges repel because virtual photons push them apart, but they also make charges attract and move magnets, so fairies with photon wands would explain electro-magnetism just as well! For this model to do better, the same quantum field that explains gravity must also explain electrical and magnetic effects without untestable inventions.

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Note 1. The logic is that a moving electron’s length is foreshortened by special relativity giving more negative electrons than positive protons in a given length of wire, so parallel wires with opposite currents attract, but this could be correlation not causation

In the last section, the earth’s gravity created a gradient in the quantum field around it that biased other matter to move towards it. But if there is only one field, how do electrical and magnetic fields arise? How can one quantum field produce three different effects?

QR5.5.1. Electro-magnetism

QR5.5.2. Remainders Spread

QR5.5.3. Spin Spreads

QR5.5.4. One Field For All

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One of the strangest predictions of general relativity is that if a large body collapses under its own gravity, nothing can stop it becoming a black hole, a region of space with gravity so strong that even light can’t escape it. Astronomers have discovered that nearly every super-massive galaxy, including our own, has a black hole at its center.

Physics has no force to stop this collapse, so a black hole is described as a point of infinite mass density called a singularity surrounded by an event horizon that defines the region where light can’t escape its gravity (Figure 5.11). This is based on the equations but they aren’t theories, so most sciences take an equation that gives an infinity to be an error not a fact.  

Processing models can’t have infinities because they can’t be computed, so this model doesn’t let matter become infinitely dense because space can’t become infinitely small. Space, like a screen, is a network with a pixel limit, and each pixel has a finite bandwidth.

A black hole then isn’t a singularity but a region of space whose points have accepted all the matter they can, and can take no more. Just as the network has a finite transfer rate that limits the speed of light, it also has a finite capacity that limits the density of mass in a black hole. What then stops the collapse of a black hole isn’t a force but the bandwidth of space itself.

This predicts that black holes expand as they acquire matter, because more space is needed to handle it. A black hole’s Schwarzschild radius is linearly proportional to its mass, but if that mass is added to a point singularity, its effect should decrease as an inverse square, like gravity. 

A black hole then isn’t a singularity of infinite density but a volume of space at maximum capacity with no infinities. Instead of radiating light, it absorbs it, so black holes are in effect dark stars that absorb energy (Barcelo et al., 2009). Sagittarius A*, the center of our galaxy, isn’t a hole at all, but a super-massive dark star that generates the dark matter needed to keep its stars together. To us as matter, dark matter is destructive, but for the galaxy, it is beneficial.

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Special relativity gives every mass in the universe its own clock. I have one, you have one, and so does every planet, but they only keep the same time if they have the same speed. General relativity adds that gravity alters time as well, so it slows down near a large mass like the earth. Hence it takes a lot of computing to make GPS navigation work because the clocks of satellites tick at a different rates depending on their altitude and speed.

How then does gravity change time? In this model, time ticks by as network cycles complete, so time will run slower if fewer cycles complete, and more processing has that effect. The gravity gradient around the earth increases the network load closer to earth, so it slows down time. A clock on top of the Empire State Building then runs faster than one at the bottom because it completes more life events.

Would we live longer on a planet with more gravity? To others it might seem so but to us, time would pass as usual. A larger planet dilates time relative to earth but the number of life events in our lifetime wouldn’t change.

Gravity slows time as Einstein says, but as a side-effect of slowing down the quantum network. We feel gravity as a force, see space as an extent, and measure time as events passing, so that they relate as relativity says isn’t unthinkable, but it is inexplicable. Yet if quantum events cause physical events, as quantum theory states, gravity, space, and time are all caused by the same quantum field.

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Astronomers have long known that stars bend light passing by them, even though photons have no mass for gravity to act on, but Einstein’s theory that gravity changes space predicts it. He imagined a flashlight shining in a lift that is going up, as shown in Figure 5.10. As the lift rises, the light curves relative to it, so if gravity equates to acceleration, stars should bend light passing by, and they do.

The light passing a star bends because, from its perspective, it is going in a straight line, just as light in the lift is. Stars then don’t bend light by pulling it, but change the space around to make it bend.

The gravity gradient proposed also predicts that stars will bend light by changing the space around it, not the light itself. It works like refraction (3.6.2), where light bends when it enters water because it spreads more slowly in it. Slowing down one side of a spreading wave skews it that way, so water bends light because it is a denser medium, not because a force acts upon it.

Likewise, the gravity gradient around the sun makes the medium of space denser closer to it, which slows down light waves. A photon of light is a spreading wave, not a particle, so when it enters a denser medium, it will bend that way. Light then bends when it passes a star for the same reason that it bends when it enters a denser medium like water.

In our terms, space curves as Einstein deduced because it becomes denser. This supports the general relativity conclusion that gravity changes the space around light, but sees it as an effect not a cause. Both the changing of space and the bending of light arise from the quantum field around the sun, so does the same apply to how gravity affects time?    

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Electrical and magnetic fields are cancelled by their opposites but gravity has no opposite, so nothing can stop it. If gravitons caused gravity, anti-gravitons could block them, but it isn’t so, and if gluons held the nucleus together, an anti-gluon stream could break it apart, but again it doesn’t happen, though anti-gluons are said to exist. 

However, if the quantum network passes processing on before any physical events occur, no physical barrier can block the spread of gravity. Gravity is then unstoppable because it spreads regardless of physical events, so no anti-gravity shield can block it. 

A free-falling object accelerates as it falls to earth because the quantum field moving it increases by Gauss’s law, so it moves faster. Einstein’s field equation relates this to space-time changes, as the earth is said to curve the space around it to make matter naturally fall towards it (Figure 5.9), but no mechanism for this is proposed.

In this model, space-time changes correlate with acceleration because the quantum field causes both, so how then does the gravity gradient also change space and time? 

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Newton discovered gravity but found it inconceivable that inanimate matter caused it:

“It is inconceivable, that inanimate brute matter should, without the mediation of something else, which is not material, operate upon, and affect other matter without mutual contact;…” (Wilczek, 2008), p77.

Yet if matter only moves by physical contact, how can the earth keep the moon in orbit without touching it, or the moon cause tides on earth? Newton had no answer, nor does physics today, as that matter alters space and time is just as inconceivable as that it acts at a distance. Even a field that creates particles can’t change space and time, so how does it work?

The simple answer is that gravity is a field that doesn’t create particles. We know that fields act at a distance, as a router can provide Wi-Fi for a whole house, so why can’t a gravity field around the earth keep the moon in orbit? The earth’s magnetism affects compasses in a plane far above it, so gravity can also keep people in their seats. Just because the standard model can’t invent a particle to explain gravity doesn’t mean it isn’t a field.

If the network of space passes on the processing of matter, the earth creates a distribution around it that decreases with distance. By Gauss’s law, a flux spreading over a sphere surface diminishes as the inverse square of its radius (Figure 5.8) (Note1), so if a processing flux does the same, the earth creates a processing gradient around itself.

Matter moves when the processing around it is asymmetric (5.3.3) and the gravity gradient of the earth has this effect. The earth doesn’t directly touch a satellite orbiting it, but it increases the processing closer to the earth, so the matter of the satellite trembles more often that way. The earth then moves matter not by pulling it but by biasing the processing of space around it.

In this model, the total processing of space is the quantum field that the distribution of the earth and the satellite add to at every point. This field, based on quantum theory, suffices to explain gravity, and in the next section also explains electro-magnetism, to provide a unified field theory.  

Note that the standard model also calls its fields quantum fields, but they don’t explain gravity. It also calls quantum theory imaginary, so it doesn’t accept the quantum field definition given here. However, the strong, weak, and Higgs particle fields are unnecessary inventions, as the last chapter showed. Quantum realism replaces the many fields of the standard model with one quantum field by accepting the reality of the field described by quantum theory.

Classical objects only move when touched but the quantum field of the earth touches all the matter around it, creating a gravity gradient that biases the natural tremble of other matter towards itself. Gravity then arises from the quantum field, and it is unstoppable.

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Note 1. The flux transferred across a sphere surface reduces as the inverse square of its radius 1/r². Newton’s law of gravity F = g.m₁.m₂/r² with m₁ and m₂ masses and g constant is an inverse square flux law, as is Coulomb’s law F = k.q₁.q₂/r² with charges q₁ and q₂ and k constant. Both laws come from Gauss’s flux law.

When a plane accelerates, we feel the back of the seat pushing us to keep up with the plane, but parachutists in free-fall feel no force at all as gravity accelerates them to the earth, so:

“It’s not the fall that kills you; it’s the sudden stop at the end.” Douglas Adams

But if there is no force, isn’t that being at rest? Einstein’s insight was that free-fall acceleration equates to being at rest, so gravity isn’t a force at all but the earth curving space and time around it, which he called “the happiest thought of my life!”

Gravity is then indistinguishable from acceleration, so passengers in a rocket accelerating at 1g feel an effect like gravity on earth and can sit down and have a cup of tea just the same. But if gravity equates to acceleration, isn’t acceleration caused by particles?

Einstein instead proposed that the earth’s gravity warps the time and space around it, which replaced Newton’s inexplicable force-at-a-distance by an equally inexplicable distortion of space and time. The idea that objects act on a fixed stage then gave way to the idea that the stage could change! A particle moving in a straight-line curves under gravity because its space and time change, not because a force influences it.

This also explains Galileo’s finding that but for friction, all masses fall at the same speed.  A heavy object has more inertia, so it should be harder to move, but if gravity is equally greater, the effects cancel. A ton of lead hits the ground at the same time as a feather because according to relativity, gravity varies with mass as inertia does. It was a brilliant solution, but it left the standard model with a force that none of its particles could explain.

If gravity causes changes in space and time, the standard model claim that gravitons cause gravity denies general relativity, just as its claim that particles move on fixed paths denies quantum theory. Why then does physics accept a model that contradicts its two best theories?

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