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Dividing a positive-negative charge produces positive and negative parts, but splitting a magnet gives two more magnets, each with its own north and south pole (Figure 5.13). Joining two small magnets also gives a big one, so big magnets come from small ones, and the smallest possible magnet is the electron.

Metals like copper can conduct electricity because their electrons are free to move, but the electrons in plastics can’t move freely so they can’t conduct electricity. Electrons also explain why metals can be magnets but plastics can’t. The electrons in a metal usually point randomly but it becomes a magnet when they all point the same way (Figure 5.14), which plastics can’t do. Magnetism, like electricity, is based on electrons, so what is it? 

An electron is essentially a tiny magnet whose north pole is at right angles to its spin, and whose south pole is the opposite, so could spin cause magnetism? In quantum theory, all matter spins, so it is a basic property like mass and charge. Current physics calls spin imaginary, because an electron is a point particle that can’t spin, but in this model, electrons spin outside space.

If spin causes magnetism, north and south poles are directions not parts, just as a plate has a top and bottom. Charges can divide because a black and white plate can divide into black and white parts, but it can’t divide into top and bottom parts, so a magnet can’t divide into north and south parts. There can never be a north pole without a south pole because spin up always allows spin down.

Yet particle models postulate particles with one magnetic pole called magnetic monopoles. Nothing in Maxwell’s equations of magnetism prohibits them, so despite no evidence, they are argued to be possible (Rajantie, 2016). But if spin causes magnetism, monopoles can’t exist, so this is yet another fruitless standard model search, like that for gravitons.

What then does spin do? By the Pauli exclusion principle, opposite-spin electrons can occupy the same point but same-spin electrons can’t. This is because electrons can spin into different regions of quantum space (4.7.1), so if one spins up and the other down, they don’t overlap, while same-spin electrons compete for the same space. Spin lets opposite spin electrons occupy the same point but not same spin electrons.

Again, the network of space passes on all processing, including its spin. It doesn’t affect gravity much but it interacts between magnets. Between opposite magnets, opposite spins co-exist so space deepens but between same magnets, same-spins compete so space is shallower.

Opposite magnets deepen the space between them, so the network there runs faster because there is less competition for space. Matter restarts more often where the field is faster, so the magnets move together, i.e. attract. But between same magnets, same-spin processes compete for the same space so the network runs slower. The magnets restart more often away from each other, so they move apart, i.e. repel. Magnets then attract or repel by biasing the speed of the quantum field between them, just as charges do but in a different way.

Gravity, charge, and magnetism then move matter by biasing the quantum field. Gravity biases the field strength, to attract only, while charges and magnets bias the field speed, to attract or repel. In all cases, an object moves when the field around it makes it tremble more often one way.

Charge and magnetism both involve electrons, so why don’t static charges affect magnets? If magnetism is a spin direction, and charge is a processing remainder, these properties won’t interact. Spin doesn’t change charge, and charge doesn’t change spin, so they don’t affect each other. 

Why then are electrical and magnetic fields at right angles? Electrons as one-dimensional matter can only move as matter on one axis. When an electric field creates a current, electrons must align their matter axes to move in the same direction, which also aligns their spins. An electron that moves on its matter axis spins at right angles to that, so its magnetic and electrical effects are at right angles.

Currents cause magnetism because aligning electrons to move in a direction also makes them spin the same way, which is magnetism. Electrons moving in one direction down a wire spin one way, and in the other direction spin the opposite way. Equally, when a magnet moves, it acts to align the electron’s axes so they move as a current.

Why then does magnetism fade faster than charge? Charge decreases as an inverse square because it spreads on a two-dimensional sphere surface but when spin deepens space, magnetism also spreads in a third dimension. The effect disappears between same poles, so magnetism fades on average more than an inverse square but less than an inverse cube.

In summary, biasing the quantum field makes objects move, and gravity biases its strength while magnetism and charge bias its speed, so they all arise from the same quantum field.

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Mass and charge may seem different but in processing terms, charge is a byproduct of mass:

1. Mass is the net processing that runs, and

2. Charge is the net processing that doesn’t run.

As matter continually overloads the network of space, the processing that always runs before the restart is its mass, and the constant remainder is charge, which can be positive, negative, or neutral. The network passes on all processing, whether done or not, so the distribution of matter reflects both its mass and charge.

The gravity of matter then arises from its mass. A huge mass like the earth spreads a massive distribution that weakens with distance to make the quantum field stronger closer to it, so local objects move toward the earth because they restart more often where the field is stronger. The effect is slight, but even a slight asymmetry causes movement over time. Gravity moves objects by biasing the field around them, so do charged objects interact for a similar reason?

Recall that each point of space passes on all its current processing before running any new processing received, so every quantum cycle has two phases:

1. Share: Pass on all current processing to its neighbors, which dilutes it, then, 

2. Execute: Run any processing received, and if it overloads, request a server restart, where:

a. If the request is ignored, just carry on.

b. If the request is accepted, restart the server processing in a physical event.

The share phase passes on all processing, not just that of mass but also the charge remainder. These remainders don’t affect the gravity of small objects much, but between opposite charges they cancel, so the quantum cycle completes faster, because the share phase has less processing to pass on. In contrast, between same-charge bodies the remainders add, so the cycle slows down because the share phase has more processing to pass on. Charged bodies then interact to make the quantum field between them run faster or slower.

Opposite charges speed up the field between them, so they restart there more often because servers accept requests on a first-come first-served basis, which makes them move together, i.e. attract. Conversely, same charges restart less often in the slower field between them, so they move apart, i.e. repel. Charges then attract or repel by biasing the speed of the quantum field between them.

It follows that charges move other charges as gravity does, not by pushing or pulling but by changing the field around them so they naturally move. Matter constantly trembles microscopically, so if it quivers more often one way, it moves macroscopically. One object can then affect another at a distance, but while gravity changes the quantum field strength, charge changes its speed. 

Why then is charge stronger than gravity for small objects? In competitions where speed counts, like running, a team that is 5% faster than others wins all the races, not just a few more. Where matter restarts in the field around it is also a competition for server access where speed counts. Hence, a slight increase in speed can have more than a slight effect, so charge effects are stronger than gravity because they bias speed not strength.  

Gravity and charge move matter by biasing the quantum field differently, namely:

• Strength. Matter tends restart where the field is stronger.
• Speed. Matter tends restart where the field is faster.

Both effects reduce as an inverse square because the quantum field follows Gauss’s law. The quantum field then explains gravity and charge, but what then is magnetism?

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Magnetism seems distinct from electricity but Maxwell’s equations describe both, and experiments connect them. A static charge isn’t magnetic but if it moves, a magnetic field appears around it. In Figure 5.12, passing a current I through the wire produces a magnetic field B. Wrapping a wire around a nail and passing a current through it makes it a magnet, and that effect stops when the current does. Electricity can then cause magnetism and the reverse is also true, as spinning a magnet with a wire around it induces a current in the wire. Electric cars are possible because magnetism and electricity connect:

“We will see that magnetism and electricity are not independent things – that they should always be taken as one complete electromagnetic field.” (Feynman et al., 1977).

Is magnetism then just charge in another guise? (Note 1) It would seem not because:

1. Static charges and magnets don’t interact.

2. The magnetic field is at right angles to the electric field.

3. Gauss’s law doesn’t apply to magnetism, which reduces more like an inverse cube.

4. Dividing a charged body gives positive and negative charges but dividing a magnet gives two more magnets, both with a north and south pole.

Magnetism acts differently from charge, so how they relate is unclear. For example, light is described as orthogonal electrical and magnetic waves that cause each other in a self-sustaining loop, which is illogical. Current physics can explain electricity and magnetism separately, but not how they combine. It is as if we understood horses and birds then found a winged horse that shouldn’t be possible. No credible theory explains why electro-magnetism has two different effects, that occur in different directions, and weaken differently.  

The standard model answer is that charges repel when virtual photons push them apart, but the same photons also make charges attract, and move magnets, so fairies with photon wands would explain electro-magnetism just as well. One field with different effects needs different causes, not the same cause that conveniently produces what is observed after the fact.

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Note 1. The logic is that a moving electron’s length is foreshortened by special relativity giving more negative electrons than positive protons in a given length of wire, so parallel wires with opposite currents attract, but this could be correlation not causation

In the last section, gravity acts at a distance because the earth’s matter spreads its existence into the quantum field around it, to impose a gradient that biases other matter to move towards it. The quantum field of quantum theory then explains gravity, but if it is the only field, what causes electro-magnetism? How can one field cause three quite different effects? 

QR5.5.1. Electro-magnetism

QR5.5.2. Remainders Spread

QR5.5.3. Spin Spreads

QR5.5.4. One Field For All

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One of the strangest predictions of general relativity is that if a large body collapses under its own gravity, nothing can stop it becoming a black hole, a region of space with gravity so strong that even light can’t escape. Astronomers have discovered that nearly every super-massive galaxy, including our own, has a black hole at its center.

Current physics has no force to stop this collapse, so a black hole is considered to be a point of infinite mass density, called a singularity, surrounded by an event horizon that is the region where light can’t escape its gravity (Figure 5.11). This is based on the equations but in most sciences, an equation that gives an infinity is an error not a fact.  

Processing models can’t have infinities because they can’t be computed, so this model doesn’t let matter become infinitely dense because space can’t become infinitely small. Our space, like a screen, has a pixel limit, and each pixel has a finite bandwidth, so a black hole is a region of space at maximum capacity that can take no more, not a singularity. Just as the finite refresh rate of network points limit the speed of light, their finite bandwidth limits the density of mass in a black hole. What stops the collapse of a black hole then isn’t a force, but the ability of space itself to support matter.

Black holes then expand as they acquire matter because more space is needed to handle it. A black hole’s Schwarzschild radius is linearly proportional to its mass, but if that mass was at a point, shouldn’t its radius effect decrease as an inverse square like gravity? 

A black hole is a volume of space at maximum capacity not a singularity of infinite density. Instead of radiating light, it absorbs it, so black holes are in effect dark stars that take in energy (Barcelo et al., 2009). Sagittarius A*, the center of our galaxy, then isn’t a hole at all, but a super-massive dark star with a halo of light, whose dark matter keeps its stars together. We come from matter, and so see dark matter as destructive, but for the galaxy, it is beneficial.

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Special relativity gives every mass in the universe its own clock. I have one, you have one, and so does every planet, but they only keep the same time if they have the same speed. General relativity adds that gravity alters time as well, so time slows down near a large mass like the earth. Hence it takes a lot of computing to make GPS navigation work because the clocks of satellites tick at a different rates depending on their altitude and speed.

How then does a large mass like the earth change time of objects around it? Virtual time ticks by as processing cycles complete, so it runs slower as processing increases. The earth’s gravity increases the network load closer to it, which slows down our time. A clock on top of the Empire State building then ticks faster than one at the bottom because the quantum field is weaker there.

Would we live longer on a planet with more gravity? To others it might seem so but to us, time would pass as usual. A larger planet dilates time relative to earth but the number of life events in our lifetime wouldn’t change. If everything runs slower, we don’t notice it.

The processing gradient of gravity makes the network of space run slower where it is stronger, which slows down time. We feel gravity as a force, see space as an extent, and experience time as life events, so it isn’t obvious why they relate. In physical terms, changes in gravity, space, and time just correlate as the equations of relativity specify, but in quantum terms, the same quantum field causes them all, so quantum mechanics provides a mechanism for Einstein’s deductions.

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Astronomers have long known that light bends when it passes a star. Photons have no mass for gravity to act on, but Einstein’s theory that matter changes space predicts it. He imagined a light shining in a lift that is going up, as shown in Figure 5.10. As the lift rises, the light curves relative to it, so if gravity equates to an acceleration, stars should bend light passing by, and they do.

Light passing a star bends because from its perspective, it is going in a straight line, just as light in the lift is. Stars then don’t pull light but change space to make it bend.

This model also expects stars to bend light, but because the gravity gradient around a star causes refraction (3.6.2). Light refracts when it enters a denser medium like water because it spreads more slowly in it, as slowing down one side of a wave skews it that way. Water then bends light by being a denser medium not by exerting a force.

Likewise, the gravity gradient of the sun makes space closer to it a slower medium for light because the quantum network has more to do. In effect, gravity makes space denser close to the sun, so light is bent when it passes a star, just as it is bent by a denser medium like water.

A large mass like the sun makes the space closer to it a denser medium for light, so it bends it. Gravity then does curve space, as Einstein said, but why does it also affect time?    

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Electrical and magnetic effects are cancelled by their opposites, but gravity has no opposite so what can stop it? If gravitons caused gravity, anti-gravitons could block them but it never happens, just as anti-gluons could destroy the gluons that hold the nucleus together, but they don’t, even though anti-gluons are said to exist. Gravity seems to be unstoppable, but why?

The answer here is that the quantum network passes on processing before physical events occur, so they can’t affect it. The gravity gradient around matter then spreads in a way that no anti-gravity shield can block. It also spreads at the speed of light, so the sun’s gravity takes about eight minutes to reach earth just as its light does. This means that if the sun suddenly vanished, the earth would carry on orbiting around it for another eight minutes!

Yet matter stops light, which is quantum waves, so why can’t it stop gravity? When a photon hits a screen, it restarts with a new direction, but when earth’s gravity reaches an object, the object moves not the earth. When an object’s matter restarts, the processing stays the same, so the gravity effect just carries on spreading to maintain its gradient.

Note that gravity also makes anti-matter objects fall down not up. For example, a hydrogen atom tends to fall to earth under its gravity, and CERN has found that an anti-hydrogen atoms do the same. This is because earth’s gravity still increases the processing closer to it, so an anti-hydrogen atom still restarts more often where the field around it is more active. However an anti-matter planet the size of the earth would cancel its gravity, but that is unlikely in our universe.

To recap, an object accelerates as it falls to earth because the gravity gradient increases as it moves closer to earth, so it moves faster. Einstein explained this as the earth curving the space-time fabric around it to make objects naturally fall (Figure 5.9), but gave no mechanism for it. In this model, these space-time changes correlate with gravity but don’t cause it. Rather the quantum field that causes gravity also causes space and time to change, as is now explained. 

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Newton discovered gravity but still found it inconceivable that inanimate matter caused it:

“It is inconceivable, that inanimate brute matter should, without the mediation of something else, which is not material, operate upon, and affect other matter without mutual contact;…” (Wilczek, 2008), p77.

Yet if matter only moves by physical contact, how can the earth keep the moon in orbit without touching it, or the moon cause tides on earth? Newton had no answer, nor does physics today, as that matter alters space and time is just as inconceivable as that it acts at a distance. Even a field that creates particles can’t change space and time, so how does gravity work?

The answer now proposed is that gravity is a field that doesn’t create particles. If a router can provide Wi-Fi for a whole house, why can’t a gravity field around the earth keep the moon in orbit? The earth’s magnetic field affects compasses in a plane far above it, so gravity can also hold people in their seats. Just because the standard model can’t invent a particle to explain gravity doesn’t mean it isn’t a field.

In this model, matter is quantum processing on a network that passes it on, so the earth will have a quantum distribution around it that reduces with distance. By Gauss’s law, a flux spreading over a sphere diminishes as the inverse square of its radius (Figure 5.8) (Note1), so if a processing flux is the same, it will also weaken as an inverse square. What then is its effect?

Quantum theory lets a large mass like the earth distribute its existence around itself. This probability of existence decreases as gravity does, so objects fall to earth because matter restarts more often where the field is stronger (5.3.3). Gravity then doesn’t pull objects as Einstein said, but imposes a gradient on space that biases their natural tremble. The earth as dead matter can’t exist beyond its surface but as quantum matter, its effect is far beyond that. It can’t touch the moon but its effect on the quantum field can hold it in orbit.

The quantum field in this model is defined by the quantum processing of each point of space, so gravity is the processing gradient that matter superposes on the quantum field around it. Essentially, the massive distribution of the earth strengthens the quantum field closer to it, to bias the tremble of matter towards itself.

Note that there is only one quantum field, so it isn’t the quantum fields of the standard model that can’t explain gravity. If quantum events are imaginary, the quantum field proposed here can’t exist, but if they aren’t, they can explain gravity, and the strong, weak, and Higgs fields are unnecessary inventions (4.5.3). This model then replaces all the current fields of physics with one field. 

Classical objects only move when touched, but the earth imposes a gravity gradient on the quantum field that biases the movement of all objects towards itself, and this effect is unstoppable.

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Note 1. The flux transferred across a sphere surface reduces as the inverse square of its radius 1/r². Newton’s law of gravity F = g.m₁.m₂/r² with m₁ and m₂ masses and g constant is an inverse square flux law, as is Coulomb’s law F = k.q₁.q₂/r² with charges q₁ and q₂ and k constant. Both laws come from Gauss’s flux law.

When a plane accelerates, we feel the back of the seat pushing us to keep up with the plane, but parachutists in free-fall feel no force at all as gravity accelerates them to the earth, so:

“It’s not the fall that kills you; it’s the sudden stop at the end.” Douglas Adams

But if there is no force, isn’t that being at rest? Einstein’s insight was that free-fall acceleration equates to being at rest, so gravity isn’t a force at all but the earth curving space and time around it, which he called “the happiest thought of my life!”

If gravity is indistinguishable from acceleration, passengers in a rocket accelerating at 1g feel an effect like gravity, so can sit down and have a cup of tea as they do on earth. But isn’t acceleration supposed to be caused by particles? Not according to Einstein, who replaced Newton’s inexplicable force-at-a-distance by equally inexplicable distortions of space and time. He made the stage changeable no fixed, so gravity bends particles by changing space and time not by exerting a force.

He also explained Galileo’s finding that but for friction, all masses fall at the same speed.  A heavy object has more inertia, so it is harder to move, but if gravity is equally greater, the effects cancel. A ton of lead hits the ground at the same time as a feather because gravity varies with mass as inertia does. It was a brilliant solution, but it left the standard model with a force that none of its particles could explain.

If gravity works by changing space and time, gravitons contradict general relativity, just as particles contradict quantum theory by taking fixed paths, but matter-based physics still accepts the standard model because it has no other option. Quantum realism however does.

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