Dividing a positive-negative charge produces positive and negative parts, but splitting a magnet gives two more magnets, each with its own north and south pole (Figure 5.13). Joining two small magnets also gives a big one, so big magnets come from small ones, and the smallest possible magnet is the electron.

Metals like copper conduct electricity when their electrons move, but the electrons in plastics can’t move freely, so they can’t conduct electricity. This is also why metals can be magnets but plastics can’t. The electrons of metals are little magnets that usually point randomly, but when they all point the same way, the result is a big magnet (Figure 5.14). In contrast, the fixed electrons of plastics can’t align like this, so they can’t be magnets. Magnetism, like electricity, is then based on electrons.

Physics describes an electron as a tiny magnet, whose north pole is at right angles to its spin and its south pole is the opposite, so spin relates to magnetism. If matter distributes itself to cause gravity by its mass, and electrical effects by its charge, could its spin cause magnetism? In quantum theory, all matter spins, so it is a basic property like mass and charge. Current physics calls the spin of an electron imaginary because point particles can’t spin, but in this model, electrons spin in quantum space (4.7.1).

If quantum spin causes magnetism, its direction defines the magnet’s north and south poles, so they are directions not parts, just as a plate has a top and bottom. This explains why charges can divide, as a black and white plate can split into black and white parts, but a magnet can’t divide into north and south poles, any more than a plate can split into top and bottom parts. Thus, a north pole can’t exist without a south pole, as one spin direction always allows the opposite.

Yet physicists still postulate magnetic monopoles, particles with one magnetic pole, because Maxwell’s equations of magnetism don’t prohibit them (Rajantie, 2016).  Particle theory encourages such speculations despite no evidence, but if spin causes magnetism, monopoles are impossible, so this is just another fruitless search for particles, like that for gravitons.

What then is the effect of spin? The Pauli exclusion rule lets opposite-spin electrons occupy the same point of space but not same-spin electrons. In this model, that rule works because electrons that spin differently do so into different quantum spaces (4.7.1), so if one spins up and the other down, they don’t overlap. In contrast, same-spin electrons compete for the same space that only one can fill. Spin lets opposite-spin electrons occupy the same point, but not same spin electrons.

All matter spins, so the distribution of matter also includes spin, as well as mass and charge. Spin doesn’t affect gravity much but it does interact, as between opposite poles, opposite spins can co-exist to in effect deepen the space between them. In contrast, between same magnets, same-spins compete, so the space there is shallower.

The effect is that when opposite poles deepen the space between them, the network there runs faster because more space means less interference, and as matter restarts more often where the field is faster, the magnets move together, i.e. attract. But between same poles, same-spins compete for the same space, so the network runs slower, making the magnets restart more often away from each other and move apart, i.e. repel. Magnets then attract or repel by biasing the speed of the quantum field between them, as charges do, but based on spin not charge.

Charge and magnetism both involve electrons, so why don’t static charges affect magnets? If magnetism is a spin direction, and charge is a processing remainder, these properties won’t interact. Spin doesn’t change charge, and charge doesn’t change spin, so they don’t affect each other. 

Why then are electrical and magnetic fields at right angles? Electrons as one-dimensional matter can only move as matter on one axis. When an electric field creates a current, electrons must align their matter axes to move the same way, which also aligns their spins. An electron moving on its matter axis spins at right angles to that, so magnetic and electrical effects are at right angles even though electrons cause both.

Currents cause magnetism because aligning electrons to move in one direction also aligns their spins to cause magnetism. Electrons moving down a wire spin one way, and in the other direction spin the opposite way, to give an opposite magnetic effect. Equally, when a magnet moves, it acts to align the electron’s axes so they move as a current.

Spin also explains why magnetism fades faster than charge. Charge decreases as an inverse square because it spreads in two-dimensions, but when spin deepens space, magnetism also spreads in another dimension. The effect disappears between same poles, so magnetism fades on average more than an inverse square but less than an inverse cube, as observed.

Gravity, charge, and magnetism act at a distance by altering the quantum field. Gravity alters the field strength to attract only, while charges and magnets alter the field speed, to attract or repel, and in all cases, objects move when the quantum field around them biases their movement one way.

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Mass and charge are different to us but in this model, charge is a byproduct of mass, as:

1. Mass is the net processing that runs, and

2. Charge is the net processing remainder that doesn’t run.

Mass is a bump on the network of space that repeats, in a recurring overload, while charge is the processing remainder that is positive, negative, or neutral. Matter is processing that repeatedly restarts, so its mass and charge are constant properties that don’t change.

Gravity arises from the mass of matter, as the earth’s mass strengthens the quantum field closer to it so objects tremble more often towards it. The effect is slight, but even a slight asymmetry causes movement in our time. Yet the network passes on all processing, whether done or not, so the distribution of matter also includes its charge. Could charged objects then move each other by altering the quantum field, as gravity does?

Recall that every point of space passes on its current processing before receiving any new processing, so each network cycle has two phases:

1. Share: Pass on all current processing to its neighbors, which dilutes it, then, 

2. Execute: Run any processing received, and if it overloads, request a server restart where:

a. If the request is ignored, just carry on.

b. If the request is accepted, restart the server processing in a physical event.

Note the share phase passes on all processing, not just of mass also of charge. Charge remainders don’t affect the gravity of small objects much, but between opposite charges they cancel, so network cycles complete faster there because the share phase has less processing to pass on. In contrast, between same-charge bodies the remainders add, so the cycle slows down because the share phase is passing on more processing. Charged bodies then interact to speed up or slow down the quantum field in the space between them.

Opposite charges speed up the field between them, so they restart there more often, as servers accept requests on a first-come first-served basis. They then move together, i.e. attract. Conversely, same charges restart less often in the slower field between them, so they move apart, i.e. repel. Charges then attract or repel by biasing the speed of the quantum field between them.

It follows that charges move each other not by pushing or pulling but by altering the quantum field between them to bias their natural tremble. Matter constantly moves microscopically so if it occurs more often one way, it moves macroscopically, but while gravity does this by changing the quantum field strength, charge does it by changing its speed. 

Why is charge stronger than gravity for small objects? In competitions where speed counts, like running, a team that is 5% faster than others wins all the races, not just 5% more. A matter restart is also a winner-takes-all competition where speed counts, so a slight increase in speed can have a big effect. Charge effects are then stronger than gravity because they bias speed not strength.

Gravity and charge move matter by biasing the quantum field differently, namely:

• Strength. Matter tends restart more often where the field is stronger.
• Speed. Matter tends restart more often where the field is faster.

Both effects reduce as an inverse square by Gauss’s law, so the quantum field can explain gravity and charge, but what about magnetism?

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Magnetism seems distinct from electricity but Maxwell’s equations describe both, and experiments relate them. For example, a static charge isn’t magnetic but if it moves, a magnetic field appears around it, as shown in Figure 5.12 where passing a current I through the wire produces a magnetic field B. Wrapping a wire around a nail and passing a current through it then makes it a magnet, and that effect stops when the current does, so electricity can cause magnetism. The reverse is also true, as spinning a magnet with a wire around it induces a current in the wire, so electric cars are possible because magnetism and electricity relate:

“We will see that magnetism and electricity are not independent things – that they should always be taken as one complete electromagnetic field.” (Feynman et al., 1977).

Is magnetism then just charge in another guise? (Note 1) It would seem not because:

1. Static charges and magnets don’t interact.

2. The magnetic field is at right angles to the electric field.

3. Gauss’s law doesn’t apply to magnetism, which reduces more like an inverse cube.

4. Dividing a charged body gives positive and negative charges but dividing a magnet gives two more magnets, both with a north and south pole.

Magnetism behaves differently from charge, so how one field causes both is unclear. For example, light is said to be electrical and magnetic waves at right angles that cause each other, but causes creating each other in a loop is illogical. The laws of electricity and magnetism are clear separately, but their electro-magnetic combination isn’t, as if we understood horses and birds then found a strange winged horse. No credible theory explains why electro-magnetism has two effects that act differently, are at right angles, and weaken differently.  

The standard model theory that same charges repel when virtual photons push them apart isn’t credible because the same photons also pull opposite charges together, and make magnets attract and repel, so one might as well say that fairies with photon wands cause electro-magnetism. A field with different effects needs different causes, not the same cause producing results after the fact.

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Note 1. The logic is that a moving electron’s length is foreshortened by special relativity giving more negative electrons than positive protons in a given length of wire, so parallel wires with opposite currents attract, but this could be correlation not causation

Gravity occurs when matter distributes its mass into the space around it, to bias the natural tremble of other objects towards itself, but mass isn’t the only property of matter. It follows that electricity and magnetism could occur in a similar way, based on other properties of matter. 

QR5.5.1. Electro-magnetism

QR5.5.2. Remainders Spread

QR5.5.3. Spin Spreads

QR5.5.4. One Field For All

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One of the strangest predictions of general relativity is that if a large body collapses under its own gravity, nothing can stop it becoming a black hole, a region of space with gravity so strong that even light can’t escape. Astronomers have discovered that nearly every super-massive galaxy, including our own, has a black hole at its center.

Current physics has no force to stop this collapse, so a black hole is considered to be a point of infinite mass density called a singularity, surrounded by an event horizon that is the region where light can’t escape its gravity (Figure 5.11). This is based on the equations but in most sciences, an equation that gives an infinity is an error not a fact.  

Processing models can’t have infinities because they aren’t calculable, so in this model, matter can’t become infinitely dense because space can’t become infinitely small. Our space, like a screen, has a pixel limit, and each pixel has a finite bandwidth, so a black hole is a region of space at maximum capacity not a singularity. Just as the finite refresh rate of space limits the speed of light, its finite bandwidth limits the density of mass in a black hole. What stops the collapse of a black hole then isn’t a force, but the ability of space itself to support matter.

It follows that black holes expand as they acquire matter because more space is needed to handle it. The Schwarzschild radius of a black hole is linearly proportional to its mass, but if that mass was at a point, its effect should decrease as an inverse square like gravity. 

A black hole is a volume of space at maximum capacity, not a singularity of infinite density. Instead of radiating light, it absorbs it, so black holes are in effect dark stars that take in energy (Barcelo et al., 2009). Sagittarius A*, the center of our galaxy, then isn’t a hole at all, but a super-massive dark star with a halo of light that keeps its stars together (4.7.6). We who are made of matter see a black hole as destructive, but for our galaxy, it is beneficial.

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Special relativity gives every mass in the universe its own clock. I have one, you have one, and so does every planet, but they only keep the same time if they have the same speed. General relativity adds that gravity alters time as well, so it takes a lot of computing to make GPS navigation work because the clocks of satellites tick at a different rates depending on their altitude and speed.

How then does gravity affect time? A virtual time ticks by as processing cycles complete, and more processing takes longer, so it will slow down that time. The earth’s gravity increases the processing load closer to it, which slows down our time. A clock on top of the Empire State building then ticks faster than one at the bottom because the load there is less, while at the bottom, space has more to do, so time passes more slowly there.

Would we then live longer on a planet like Jupiter that has more gravity? To others it might seem so but to us, time would pass as usual. A large planet dilates time relative to earth, but the number of events in our lifetime wouldn’t change, so we wouldn’t notice it.

We feel gravity as a force, see space as an extent, and experience time as life events, so why they relate as relativity says isn’t obvious. In physical terms, they correlate, so space-time changes seem to cause gravity, but in quantum terms, the same activity generates them all. The earth’s distribution causes gravity and alters space and time, so they are all effects not causes.

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Astronomers have long known that light bends when it passes a star although photons have no mass for gravity to act on, but Einstein predicted this. He imagined a light shining in a lift going up, as shown in Figure 5.10. As the lift rises, the light curves relative to it, so if gravity equates to an acceleration, stars should bend light passing by, and they do. Light passing a star bends but from its perspective, it is going in a straight line, just as light in the lift is. Stars then don’t bend light by pulling it, but by changing its space.

This model also expects a star to bend light, because its gravity gradient will cause refraction (3.6.2). Light refracts when it enters a denser medium like water because it spreads more slowly in it, as slowing down one side of a wave skews it that way. Water then bends light because it is a denser medium, not by exerting a force.

Likewise, the gravity gradient of the sun makes space nearer to it a slower medium for light because it has more to do. Gravity makes space closer to the sun denser, so light bends when it enters it, just as it does when it enters a denser medium like water. The sun bends light by making it spread slower when it is closer, so gravity does curve space as Einstein said, but why does it also alter time?    

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Electrical and magnetic effects are cancelled by their opposites, but gravity has no opposite so what can stop it? If gravitons caused gravity, anti-gravitons could block them but it never happens, just as anti-gluons could destroy the gluons that hold the nucleus together, but they don’t, even though anti-gluons are said to exist. Why then is gravity unstoppable?

In this model, the quantum network passes on processing before physical events occur, so they can’t affect it. The gravity gradient around matter then spreads in a way that no anti-gravity shield can block. It also spreads at the speed of light, so the sun’s gravity takes about eight minutes to reach earth, just as its light does. Hence, if the sun suddenly vanished, the earth would carry on orbiting around it for another eight minutes!

Yet matter stops light, which is quantum waves, so why can’t it stop gravity? When a photon hits a screen, it stops spreading and restarts with a new direction, but when earth’s distribution reaches an object, it just carries on spreading. The processing before and after a matter restart is the same, so the gravity gradient isn’t blocked by matter as light is.

Note also that gravity makes anti-matter objects fall down not up. For example, a hydrogen atom tends to fall to earth under its gravity, and anti-hydrogen atoms do the same. The earth’s gravity increases the processing closer to it, so an anti-hydrogen atom still restarts more often where the field around it is stronger. It would take an anti-matter planet the size of the earth to cancel its gravity, but that doesn’t happen in our universe.

An object accelerates as it falls to earth because the gravity gradient increases as it falls, so it moves faster. Einstein saw this as the earth curving space and time around it (Figure 5.9) but here, these changes correlate with gravity but don’t cause it, as the quantum field that causes gravity also changes space and time. 

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Newton discovered gravity, but still found it inconceivable that inanimate matter caused it:

“It is inconceivable, that inanimate brute matter should, without the mediation of something else, which is not material, operate upon, and affect other matter without mutual contact;…” (Wilczek, 2008), p77.

Today we expect fields to act at a distance, as Wi-Fi waves from a router can provide Internet for a whole house. The earth’s magnetic field can move a compass in a plane far above it, so why can’t a gravity field hold the moon in orbit? The field that does that is the quantum field, which represents the quantum activity of each point of space.

In quantum theory, a matter entity exists as a distribution whose strength is the probability that it will be physically found there, which in this model arises because quantum processes spread. By Gauss’s law, a flux spreading over a sphere reduces as the inverse square of its radius (Figure 5.8) (Note1), so a processing flux that is the same will also weaken as an inverse square. Matter then spreads itself around in a way that weakens as gravity does, given only that quantum theory is true. 

The effect of gravity is insignificant for small objects, but the huge distribution of the earth imposes a gradient on the quantum field that strengthens it closer to earth. As established earlier (5.3.3), objects tremble more often where the quantum field around them is stronger, to move in that direction, so the earth’s distribution has that effect. The earth’s gravity then is caused by the gradient it imposes on the quantum field around it, which acts at a distance, reduces as an inverse square, and is unstoppable as quantum processing always spreads.

Classical objects just sit there inert, but quantum entities pulsate into the space around them, and the earth does that on a massive scale. They also need to be pushed, but quantum entities constantly tremble based on their local quantum field, to move in a way that Newton couldn’t conceive. The earth as brute matter can’t exist beyond its surface but its quantum existence reaches all the way to the moon to keep it in orbit, as objects fall downwards because they tremble more often where the quantum field is stronger.

Note that the quantum field proposed here isn’t the quantum fields of the standard model, which can’t explain gravity. They are particle fields and quantum theory doesn’t support particles. Given that the strong, weak, and Higgs fields are unnecessary (4.5.3). This quantum field can then replace all the current fields of physics, as will be seen. 

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Note 1. The flux transferred across a sphere surface reduces as the inverse square of its radius 1/r². Newton’s law of gravity F = g.m₁.m₂/r² with m₁ and m₂ masses and g constant is an inverse square flux law, as is Coulomb’s law F = k.q₁.q₂/r² with charges q₁ and q₂ and k constant. Both laws come from Gauss’s flux law.

When a plane accelerates, we feel the back of the seat pushing us to keep up with the plane, but parachutists in free-fall feel no force at all as gravity accelerates them to the earth, so:

“It’s not the fall that kills you; it’s the sudden stop at the end.” Douglas Adams

Einstein concluded that a free-fall equates to being at rest, so there is no force. He called his insight that the acceleration of gravity is the earth curving space and time around it “the happiest thought of my life!” Gravity then isn’t a force at all, but the earth changing space and time.

Gravity is indistinguishable from acceleration, so passengers in a rocket accelerating at 1g feel an effect like gravity. For example, they can sit down and have a cup of tea, just as they do on earth. Yet isn’t acceleration caused by particles? Not according to Einstein, who replaced Newton’s inexplicable force-at-a-distance with equally inexplicable distortions of space and time. He made the space-time fabric malleable, so gravity can move particles by changing it.

This theory also explained Galileo’s finding that, but for friction, all masses fall at the same speed. A heavy object has more inertia, so it is harder to move, but if gravity is equally greater, the effects cancel. In a vacuum, a feather hits the ground at the same time as a ton of lead because gravity varies with mass as inertia does.

It was a brilliant solution, but left the standard model with an effect that particles can’t explain. Its gravitons contradict general relativity, just as its particles taking fixed paths contradict quantum theory, so both relativity and quantum theory challenge the foundations of particle-based physics. 

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