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The following questions are addressed in this chapter. They are better discussed in a group to allow a variety of opinions to emerge. The relevant section link is given after each question:

1. How do mass and charge relate? (QR4.3.2)

2. Why are electrons and neutrinos both classified as leptons? (QR4.3.3)

3. Why do neutrinos have a tiny mass but no charge? (QR4.3.3)

4. Why is our universe made of matter instead of anti-matter? (QR4.3.5)

5. If anti-particles run time in reverse, can they go backwards in time? (QR4.3.6)

6. Why do quarks have strange one-third charges? (QR4.4.3)

7. What causes the strong force that binds quarks in the nucleus of an atom? (QR4.4.4)

8. Why does this quark binding get stronger with distance? (QR4.4.4)

9. Why are three quarks needed to form a proton or neutron? (QR4.4.5)

10. What do the quark “colors” of the standard model represent? (QR4.4.5)

11. What turns neutrons in space into protons? Why don’t protons in space decay? (QR4.4.6)

12. Does the Higgs cause any of the mass around us? Why is it said to “cause mass”? (QR4.4.7)

13. Why does the energy inherent in all matter depend on the speed of light? (QR4.4.8)

14. Why does string theory need eleven dimensions to work? (QR4.5.1)

15. What did Newton think caused gravity? Does current physics agree? What does the evidence suggest? (QR4.5.2)

16. Why are virtual particles magical despite having lawful effects? (QR4.5.2)

17. How does current physics decide when virtual particles interact? (QR4.5.3)

18. How does the standard model explain new and unexpected findings? (QR4.5.4)

19. What is the difference between an equation and a theory? (QR4.5.5)

20. How is the standard model of physics similar to the standard model of medieval astronomy? (QR4.5.6)

21. Are the standard model’s fundamental particles actually particles? Are they fundamental? Explain. (QR4.5.7)

22. How does a processing model classify the basic entities of physics? (QR4.5.8)

23. Why does quantum realism’s claim that matter is made of light contradict the standard model? (QR4.5.9)

24. What came first, matter or light? Give a reason for your answer (QR4.5.9)

25. Why do all higher atomic nuclei need neutrons? (QR4.6.1)

26. An atom of lead has 82 electrons in a small space. Why don’t they collide with each other? (QR4.6.2)

27. How do electrons “fill” the shells and sub-shells of an atom? (QR4.6.3)

28. Can electrons as point-particles spin? Why do electrons “half-spin”? (QR4.7.1)

29. Why are neutrinos always left-handed? (QR4.7.2)

30. Why are protons much heavier than the quarks from which they are made? (QR4.7.3)

31. Why is the universe charge neutral? (QR4.7.4)

32. Why do leptons and quarks have three family generations, then no more? (QR4.7.5)

33. Why are the higher generations of leptons and quarks increasingly heavy? (QR4.7.5)

34. What is dark matter? Why can’t we see it? How does it differ from ordinary matter? (QR4.7.6)

35. What is dark energy? Why can’t a particle model explain it? (QR4.7.7)

36. Is our universe dead or alive? Give reasons. (QR4.8.1)

37. Why is our universe “finely tuned” for life? (QR4.8.2)

38. What are the quantum evolution equivalents of biology’s reproduction, variation and selection? (QR4.8.3)

39. Was our universe “built” as a watchmaker builds a watch? If not, how did we arise? (QR4.8.4)

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Table 4.8 compares how quantum realism and physical realism explain matter so the reader can decide.

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Apparently, inert matter made galaxies, stars, planets and life by accident and whatever made the universe abandoned it to physical laws long ago. The laws of thermodynamics doom everything to run down, whether our bodies, the sun or the universe, so the expected end state is an eternally empty big freeze. If the universe is ultimately pointless then we are too, so it doesn’t matter what we do because nothing really matters at all. This dismal vision, that the laws of matter drive us, denies the accountability that societies need to work (Whitworth & Ahmad, 2013), so civilization would collapse if it was widely accepted.

This cosmic nihilism calls itself the voice of reason but genuine reason suggests otherwise. Our universe began, so something else must have made it. Quantum randomness has no physical cause, so matter isn’t all there is. Claims that consciousness arises from physical complexity (Zizzi,2003) fail because supercomputers show no signs of consciousness. A universe that has been decaying for billions of years had to begin very ordered, which the primal chaos wasn’t, so decay isn’t the only principle at work. That quantum laws are probable not certain means that the universe isn’t a machine whose future is written. When examined closely, the story of a dead world going nowhere that made us by accident makes no more sense than that of a world built just for us by a supreme being.

A machine is designed to a blueprint, built from inert parts, then runs in a predictable way. A universal machine should arise like this but it isn’t possible. If the physical universe began from nothing, where was the blueprint kept? If matter was built from fundamental parts, where did they initially exist? And if the universe is a predictable machine, why does quantum randomness have no physical cause? Newton’s vision of a universal machine designed, built and run by God isn’t supported by modern physics.

Nor does the evidence suggest that we are powerless servants of a divine plan. That our universe is evolving at every scale suggests it wasn’t built as a watchmaker builds a watch but born like a baby, not knowing where it is going or why. An acorn that will become an oak in the right setting wasn’t designed to be a tree but inherited “tree-ness” from its origin. Its genes aren’t the “blueprint” to build a tree but grow one and it always becomes an oak tree not some random thing.

In the same way, a baby’s birth may be accidental but that babies in general are born is no accident because that is how species survive. Baby’s brains are predisposed to learn language and recognize faces so a specific baby can learn any language and recognize any face. The details may be accidental but the overall result isn’t. If the universe itself is likewise predisposed to evolve, evolution may involve accidents but what is emerging isn’t entirely random.

Emergence means to become a new sort of being, as a butterfly with wings emerges from the pupa of a caterpillar that crawls. Given time and the stability of a shell, caterpillar genes recombine to form a butterfly that is a new sort of being. The same thing happens to matter when hydrogen and oxygen gases combine to form liquid water. In both cases, what existed already combines to form a new way of existing with entirely different properties from its predecessors.

To say a butterfly contains a caterpillar within it or that water has a gaseous base is to misunderstand emergence, yet physics today assumes that its fundamental matter parts persist when they combine, so a nucleus is just a bunch of protons and neutrons sitting side by side. In essence, it denies emergence but in quantum realism, emergence is a key feature of the universe at every scale. Emergence allowed light to combine into electrons, quarks to combine into protons, protons and electrons to combine into Hydrogen atoms, and this was just the start.

Ideas of designing, building and controlling don’t work when it comes to emergence. If the universe is emerging from simple parts to complex wholes, it is doing so in a way that even it can’t foresee. It is becoming what it can be so we exist because we can, not due to some plan. Evolution works by accident but isn’t itself accidental, as trying every option eventually leads to what works. We are neither accidental nor designed but rather emerged naturally from the universe.

Table 4.8 compares quantum realism and physical realism for matter so the reader can decide for themselves. It implies a living universe born to actively evolve into an emerging future but if so, what might that be?

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Darwin’s great idea was that the human species was naturally selected by evolution over millions of years rather than made by a divine intelligence as it is today. The conditions necessary for species to evolve are identified as:

1. Generation. Species generate offspring that carry on their traits.

2. Variation. The offspring’s traits vary, for example by mutation.

3. Selection. Offspring that survive are selected to continue their traits.

Evolution is essentially an iterative method that tries out various biological patterns and selects those that survive to define the future. It contradicts the orthodox religious view of a divine creator with a preconceived plan.

If the quantum world explores every option and selects one to be a physical event, Darwin’s theory can then apply if species is replaced by quantum entity, so a photon is subject to evolution as it has:

1. Generation. The photon process generates “offspring” by instantiation.

2. Variation. Photon instances vary in properties like location and direction.

3. Selection. One instance is selected to restart the photon in a physical event.

When a photon cloud passes through Young’s slits to hit a screen point, it generates many instance variants, one of which triggers a server restart that selects how the photon is reborn. Light finds the fastest path to any destination by a quantum evolution, where the instance that restarts the server first is “more fit”. It succeeded accidentally but that the photon as a whole finds the fastest path wasn’t an accident at all, as some instance always finds the fastest way.

By trying every option, photons combined into electrons, a new entity “species” that behaves differently from light. An electron occupies the channels of a node axis as a species occupies a niche in nature, so it is constantly bombarded by competitors for its quantum niche as a species faces competition in a biological niche. The electron structure is only stable if it survives to exclude other entities from its niche. In the evolution of matter, stability replaces biological survival.

Quantum randomness is a problem for both physical realism and conventional theology. It is pointless in a clockwork universe because it introduces errors in the machine, as what use is a clock that gives random time or a machine that does random things? Randomness is equally unhelpful in a god-designed universe because it interferes with the divine plan, hence Einstein didn’t like the idea that God plays dice with universe. To evolve requires randomness which denies God’s supremacy in theism and denies the supremacy of physical laws in physics. A God that exerts control by rolling dice is as embarrassing to theology as physical laws that work by random choices is to science, but are these the only options?

Quantum realism accepts what physical realism and theism reject because the evolution of matter needs randomness no less that the evolution of life does. In biological evolution, species generate gene blends and what survives is selected to carry on. In the evolution of matter, quantum entities generate processing blends and what is stable is selected to carry on. In both cases, evolution needs randomness to succeed so the world of matter is finding what survives, just as life is.

In current science, evolution began with life but in quantum realism, a grand evolution began when the universe did, as electrons, neutrinos, quarks, protons, neutrons and atoms evolved long before life did. Why differentiate the evolution of matter from the evolution on life, if the same principles of generation, variation and selection operate? Even if biological evolution is restricted to our tiny earth, the grand evolution continues throughout the universe, as stars continue to make matter to this day. Without stars creating heavy atoms like carbon, we couldn’t have evolved so the lesser evolution of life requires the greater evolution of matter, and both are ongoing.

The standard model assumes the big bang created “fundamental particles” of matter but in quantum realism, matter had to evolve from photons because there were no divine shortcuts. Higher elements had to be made in the matter factories we call stars or in a supernova sacrifice. What drives our universe to evolve isn’t dead matter following fixed laws or the plan of a divine being but the nature of quantum reality. That the grand evolution of the universe was built-in at its quantum birth suggests a living universe evolving up not a dead universe running down.

That a river is finely-tuned for crocodiles to live in doesn’t mean it was designed for them but that crocodiles evolved to live as rivers allowed. In the same way, the physical world evolved as it did because the quantum environment allowed it. The physical universe wasn’t fine-tuned to evolve any more than crocodiles were fine-tuned to in rivers. It inherited the ability to evolve from its quantum origin so it is fine-tuned because it evolved not because it was designed so. Evolution, like life, always finds a way. Again, that our universe is evolving suggests it is alive, so is it unpredictable?

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Humanity has long wondered how the stars, galaxies and life itself began? For stars to create atoms needs the stability of galaxies that would fly apart without dark matter that just so happens to stop that. We make energy by nuclear fission that breaks nuclei apart but stars make energy by nuclear fusion that merges Hydrogen nuclei into Helium, which needs neutrons that the weak force also just happens to allow. The laws of physics didn’t let nuclear fusion create the carbon atoms life needs until a just right energy resonance was found:

“The energy at which the carbon resonance occurs is determined by the interplay between the strong nuclear force and the electromagnetic force. If the strong force were slightly stronger or slightly weaker … the universe might very well be devoid of life and go unobserved.” (Davies, 2006)

The Goldilocks Effect is that our universe has an unreasonable number of parameters set just right for life, without which we couldn’t exist. For example:

“Take, for instance, the neutron. It is 1.00137841870 times heavier than the proton, which is what allows it to decay into a proton, electron and neutrino—a process that determined the relative abundances of hydrogen and helium after the big bang and gave us a universe dominated by hydrogen. If the neutron-to-proton mass ratio were even slightly different, we would be living in a very different universe: one, perhaps, with far too much helium, in which stars would have burned out too quickly for life to evolve, or one in which protons decayed into neutrons rather than the other way around, leaving the universe without atoms. So, in fact, we wouldn’t be living here at all—we wouldn’t exist.” Ananthaswamy (2012)

Were these values set “just so” by a kind creator or did a vast system spawn many universes and we just happen to be on the life-supporting one? The conclusion isn’t that the universe is designed for life as if so, it is a poor design because most of the universe is inhospitable to life. Yet it is true that the parameters of our universe are balanced on a knife edge, for as Susskind says:

“The great mystery is not why there is dark energy. The great mystery is why there is so little of it [10−122]… The fact that we are just on the knife edge of existence, [that] if dark energy were very much bigger we wouldn’t be here, that’s the mystery.”

Other “cosmic coincidences” are (Barnes, 2012):

1. Strong force. If the strong force was stronger or weaker by just 1% there would be no carbon or heavier elements anywhere in the universe.

2. Weak force. If the weak force was any weaker the hydrogen in the universe would be greatly decreased, starving stars of nuclear fuel and leaving the universe a cold and lifeless place.

3. Neutrons. If neutrons were slightly less massive the universe would be entirely protons and if lower by 1%, then all protons would decay into neutrons so no atoms other than hydrogen, helium, lithium and beryllium could form.

4. Cosmic microwave background. This radiation has a slight anisotropy, roughly one part in 100,000, just enough to allow stars and galaxies to form. Any smaller and the early universe would have been too smooth for stars and galaxies to form and any larger and stable stars with planetary systems would be extremely rare.

5. Cosmological constant. The positive and negative contributions to the vacuum energy density cancel to 120-digit accuracy, but the 121st digit makes our universe possible.

Since all the above and more apply, our “luck” is hard to explain. If the entire universe is fine-tuned to evolve, one can’t conclude a lucky accident from a sample of one, unless there are many universes, so multiverse theory is popular despite it being scientifically worthless. Yet to conclude that there had to be many universes in order to make our universe an accident isn’t scientific. The fine-tuning of our universe is based on evidence but the multiverse is based on no evidence at all:

“The multiverse has only ever existed, so far as we know, in the mind of man. Its most promising research programs, string theory and early rapid cosmic inflation theory, have bounced along on enthusiasm alone, prompting ever more arcane speculations for which there may never be any possibility of evidence.” (O’Leary, 2017)

In a recent variant, Smolin speculates that black holes spawn universes based on Hawking’s 1987 proposal, again with no evidence, but that a black hole is a mathematical infinity doesn’t mean it can create a universe.

In quantum realism, our universe was born from a preexisting quantum reality whose nature defined every universal parameter from the start. This predicts that the key parameters of nature reduce to core network properties like refresh rate (the speed of light), density (Planck’s constant) and expansion rate (the cosmological constant). From these, simulations based on quantum reverse engineering could derive other parameters, such as electron mass and charge. Our universe has the laws it does because it was born from quantum reality.

It follows that if other “bubble universes” arose in the quantum bulk as ours did, they would have exactly the same laws of physics except they might break the anti-matter way. In this view, the parameters of our universe were neither accidental nor chosen but inherited from the primal quantum reality. Again, that our universe was born from quantum reality suggests it is alive, so does it have the ability to evolve?

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The standard model has no null particle so it sees empty space as empty but modern physics doesn’t support this view. In quantum theory, quantum fields are alive with quantum activity that is entirely spontaneous, so we can’t predict when a physical event will occur and these fluctuations occur at mind-boggling speeds of 10-24 second or less (Wilczek, 2008) p74. That all physical events result from interactions between constantly active quantum fields explains why the world we see is constantly active and the Casimir effect shows that even space is a seething cauldron of quantum events.

Applying this discovery to matter, it may look inert but electrons are constantly active as shown by chemical reactions and electricity. Equally the nucleus may seem inert but we know from nuclear bombs that there is great power within it. Appearances deceive, as we see the sun rising and setting when in fact we come and go while the sun shines constantly. Likewise, the world of substance we see is actually a constant series of quantum events.

Quantum realism sees space as a constantly active null process and matter as light pulsing at a fantastic rate. The sun contains over 99% of the mass of the solar system, so it represents matter better than the rocks lying around on earth. Its constant activity depicts the quantum furnace that made matter. We call earth the “third rock from the sun” but the Gaia Hypothesis describes an autopoietic or self-organizing system that maintains a homeostasis of climate, atmosphere and ocean salinity, so it isn’t an inert at all (Margulis, 1999). That the cosmic systems around us actively maintain themselves as our bodies do is expected for a living universe. Conversely, one doesn’t expect constant activity from a dead universe, but that is what we see, so was the universe also “born”?

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Physical realists see the universe as dead matter while theologians see it as divinely inspired.  In one case we are just an accident in a dead universe that is winding down and in the other we are the chosen ones in a universe built just for us. The difference couldn’t be greater but both assume a universe of matter that unlike us, isn’t alive.

Is the universe we live in alive or dead? Dictionaries define living as having life or being alive not dead, a circular approach that amounts to saying that life is what living things do. In medicine, a body is alive as long as the processes maintaining it continue, like heartbeat. When they stop, the body dissolves into atoms that become part of other entities. In these terms, an active entity that is born and evolves in unpredictable ways is alive if dynamic processes maintain it.

Applying this definition to the universe, if it is active, was born and is developing in unpredictable ways, it is alive as long as quantum processes maintain it and it will die when they stop. That the universe is alive answers the question how did dead matter create life? Otherwise, how could a universe that is itself dead give rise to life? It is ironic that we who consider ourselves alive now claim that what made us dead! If the universe is constantly generated by quantum processes, then if it is active not inert, born not made, evolving not designed and emerging not decreed, then it is alive.

QR4.8.1 Active Not Inert

QR 4.8.2 Borne Not Made

QR 4.8.3 Evolving Not Designed

QR 4.8.4 Emerging Not Decreed

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After confirming dark matter, in 1998 astronomers discovered that the expansion of universe, previously thought to be slowing down under the force of gravity, was actually accelerating. Some sort of negative gravity had to be pushing the universe apart against the gravity that pulls it together. The force stopping gravity from collapsing the universe was called dark energy. Cosmologists estimate that dark energy is 68% of the energy of the universe, dark matter is 27% and the standard model’s particle matter is at best only 5%. Since the standard model’s particles only account for a tiny fraction of the energy of the universe, it isn’t even close to being a theory of everything.

Dark energy is a weak effect, spread evenly through space that seems to have changed little over time. In equations, it makes space flat so some call it a property of space itself but if so, it should increase as space expands. If it is caused by particles, as the standard model assumes every force is, it should weaken over time as space expands but it doesn’t. Particles of any sort should clump together not remain evenly spread and what particle could cancel gravity to push the universe apart? The standard model can’t explain dark energy at all because a particle can’t have a negative energy.

In quantum realism, our space is the inner surface of a bubble expanding into a quantum bulk so an expanding universe must lose energy, just as expanding a box cools the gas within it. New points of space are added all the time throughout space and since they are new, for their first cycle they receive but don’t transmit energy. This negative energy effect, spread over all space, is then dark energy. It does not diminish as space expands because more of it continually pops into existence to keep pace with the expanding universe and indeed it may be gradually increasing.

If dark energy comes from new space, no particle cause will ever explain it.

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In the 1950s, astronomers discovered that our galaxy rotated as if it had more matter than its visible stars allowed, five times more in fact. They concluded that most of the galaxy was “dark matter”, dark because it can’t be seen and matter because it caused gravity. Studying the rotation curves of other galaxies extended this conclusion to them and dark matter is now thought to be about 85% of the matter of the universe and quarter of its total energy. From its effects, we infer that dark matter exists as a halo around the supermassive black hole at the center of almost every galaxy, including ours.

Dark matter essentially allows a galaxy to hold its stars together more tightly than their gravity allows. It isn’t the matter we see because no light can detect it, it isn’t anti-matter because it has no gamma ray signature and it isn’t a black hole because there is no gravitational lensing, but without it, the stars of our galaxy would fly apart. Dark matter is the “glue” that binds galaxies together but its cause is unknown. Yet without it, the matter-producing factories we call stars would not have had the stability they needed to build up the periodic table elements necessary for life.

The existence of dark matter, deduced from its effect, was a problem for a physics that sees all mass as particle based. Its only option was to propose that weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) caused it. The result was yet another expensive wild-goose chase, despite talk of super-WIMPs (Feng, Rajaraman, & Takayama, 2003). WIMPs, like gravitons, proton decay and squarks, were another standard model misdirection, as any particle-like mass would have been seen by now. That no particle exists to explain 85% of our galaxy’s mass is a significant standard model failure.

If mass arises when a quantum processing excess repeats over time, what else could give a halo that generates mass? One possibility is that the black hole at the galaxy center traps light in an “orbit” around it. This is possible because light too close to a black hole is pulled in and light too far away escapes but at some radius, light will constantly circle in a large loop (Figure 4.26).

If light rotates in vast but finite loop around the galaxy center, from which it can’t escape, a halo of circling light would build-up over time, as more photons are added than leave. This halo wouldn’t be visible as light cannot be seen from the side.

By the pass-it-on protocol, nodes are interrupt driven, so each cycle they first pass on current processing then receive any input to process. If any node gets more processing than it can handle, it immediately passes it on. This allows an infinite pass-it-on repeat but as argued earlier, such repeats would be sooner or later absorbed by a node of new space. But if the halo of rotating light around a black hole is massive enough, new space may not add fast enough to do this. The result would be a permanent net processing excess, which in this model is mass.

A dense enough stream of light constantly circling around a black hole will generate mass. It follows that dark matter is created by light like ordinary matter, but instead of being a “particle” confined to a node, it is spread out through a vast stream of light. Light trapped in an orbit around a black hole gives rise to dark matter just as light trapped in a node gives rise to particle matter.

Ordinary and dark matter are processing that repeats but while ordinary matter is a stand-alone particle, dark matter is spread through the photon halo that builds up around a massive black hole. It isn’t seen because photons either pass through at right angles or join the stream. Dark matter doesn’t collide like particle matter because it doesn’t have a particle structure, so when galaxies collide, the dark matter doesn’t collide but stays with the black hole that creates it when they separate. This model allows small galaxies to exist with no black holes and even galaxies that have lost their stars to consist of 99.9% dark matter. Dark matter arises because mass can arise in a way other than as a “particle”.

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